Keywords: Kalevala-metric song, mythology, ritual swinging, seasonal festivities
The Estonian myth recounting the creation of the world and heavenly bodies has been recorded as a Kalevala-metric epic song (regilaul) that has parallels in other Finnic traditions. Various connections emerge within Estonian folklore between the Creation song and the popular practice of swinging at Easter or Pentecost, and the beginning of the summer season. In light of the cyclical conception of time, we can interpret the practice of singing the Creation song while on a swing as a part of the spring ritual marking the beginning of the year. In order to test this hypothesis, the article presents an analysis of the links between variants of the Creation song and the practice of swinging, based on materials from the Estonian Folklore Archives housed at the Estonian Literary Museum. Out of the 258 texts examined using source criticism, 230 could be verified as authentic representations of folklore obtained from oral tradition, either through written records or audio recordings. The earliest recorded text in the sample dates back to the 1820s.
For an analysis of variation in folk song, a modified version of the historical-geographic method of the Finnish school was employed, using the concepts of type and variant as the foundation for comparing and organizing the extensive corpus of the texts of Creation originating from oral tradition. In using this approach, the author has strived to avoid the idea of monolithic folk song types and a somewhat mechanistic view of the evolution of orally transmitted texts which have been characteristic of the Finnish school.
The archive contains Estonian variants of Creation that can be grouped into an older, Kalevala-metric version and a more recent version that represents a hybrid form of folk song incorporating features from both the more archaic alliterative Kalevala-metric singing tradition and the more modern European-style rhymed folk songs. Swinging is associated with the older version, variants of which have been recorded from the 19th century to the first half of the 20th century in peripheral regions of northern and western Estonia, as well as to some extent in central Estonia – that is, in an area where the archaic Northern Estonian Kalevala-metric singing tradition shares certain common features. The same region is the traditional area for the custom of swinging on large communal village swings that resemble Finnish and Ingrian swings. The more modern version, used in conjunction with a circle game, represents a newer tradition originating in Pärnu County, although this circle game may have been played during festivities at swing sites.
The connection between the Kalevala-metric Creation song and swinging becomes apparent through shared features in lyrics and melodies found in variants of the Creation type as well as swinging songs (occasionally, performers or collectors have also added explicit comments to song variants mentioning swinging). These common elements may have developed as a result of the songs being sung while singing. On the other hand, the older version of Creation is rarely associated with other activities or specific melodies. More than a third (38 per cent) of all the variants of the Kalevala-metric Creation feature text motifs or melodies intertwined with swinging songs, indicating that these variants have traditionally been sung while swinging or in close proximity to swinging. Texts of Creation linked to swinging form two main versions: Nest on the Swing (a bird weaves its nest on the swing shaft) and Narrow Swing (the swing is described using metaphors of the world tree). Although other epic Kalevala-metric songs have occasionally been sung on swings, their association with swinging is far more sporadic. There are also reports of singing Creation on a swing from Ingria.
The links between the Estonian Creation song and swinging allow us to at least hypothesize the existence of a past spring ritual conducted on swings. This ritual likely aimed to restore order to the world and ensure the fertility of humans and nature by singing about the rebirth of heavenly bodies. The swing may have directly symbolized the rotating cosmos, the world tree, or a model of the world.
Taive Särg (b. 1962), PhD, Estonian Folklore Archives of the Estonian Literary Museum, Senior Researcher (Vanemuise 42, 51003 Tartu), taive.sarg@folklore.ee
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Keywords: literature didactics, teaching poetry, basic psychological needs
In recent years, discussions about the modernization of literature education have gained prominence. However, there persists a lack of insight into the actual practices occurring in schools. From the perspective of poetry education, it is crucial to delve into the reality of how poetry is taught in Estonian schools. There is a dearth of information on which authors are being taught, how poetry is approached, and how students are supported in their reading. This article is the first to address these questions. It offers a comprehensive analysis that maps the position of poetry within Estonian schools and thus points to potential future scenarios concerning the societal role of poetry. It is worth noting that our research is not meant to examine the entirety of poetry education but specifically focuses on the treatment of poetry collections.
The study is based on a semi-structured survey conducted in the autumn of 2022, involving 84 literature teachers from across Estonia. The questions addressed the poetry works covered, preferred authors, approaches to poetry collections, and the challenges encountered in poetry education. These aspects were examined within the context of decades of research in poetry didactics.
Teachers report students’ limited appreciation for literature, infrequent reading habits, difficulties in grasping figurative language, and a restricted vocabulary. Furthermore, they highlight a lack of suitable teaching materials for poetry. Teachers acknowledge their own limited knowledge of poetry and poetry collections. This creates a cycle where teachers’ prior experiences with poetry collections hamper their enthusiasm for teaching, thus perpetuating the absence of a tradition. Contemporary and foreign poetry is frequently avoided. One-third of teachers fail to provide adequate support during independent reading. A significant portion of teachers concludes poetry collection instruction with creative projects.
This study reveals that poetry, particularly in the form of poetry collections, occupies a marginalized space in literature classrooms. Around a quarter of students complete their basic education without ever having read any poetry collections. Teachers grapple with a shortage of suitable teaching materials and require substantial support. Given these challenges, fostering an enhanced poetry education hinges on collaboration between literary studies and didactics to unlock the pedagogical-poetic potential of poetry and make it more visible. In summary, both teachers and poetry are in need of assistance, and this study underscores the challenges that underlie poetry instruction.
Marie Udam (b. 1991), MA, Narva Estonian School, literature and Estonian language teacher (Hariduse 3, 20307 Narva), marie.udam@nerg.ee
Joosep Susi (b. 1989), MA, Tallinn University, junior lecturer of Literature Didactics and Estonian Literature (Narva mnt 25, 10120 Tallinn), jsusi@tlu.ee
Merilyn Meristo (b. 1975), PhD, Tallinn University, associate professor (Narva mnt 25, 10120 Tallinn), merilyn.meristo@tlu.ee
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Keywords: Verb Second (V2), language contact, language history, Germanic languages, prosody, corpus study
Estonian is a verb-second (V2) language: in certain types of sentences, the finite verb tends to be the second constituent. The V2 feature of Estonian is most likely to have developed under Germanic influence. However, there are differences between Germanic and Estonian V2 order. The word order of Estonian main-clause wh-interrogatives is one of the major exceptions to the V2 order. Main-clause wh-interrogatives are always V2 in Germanic but predominantly verb-final in Estonian. The paper describes two corpus studies – a synchronic and a diachronic one – that aimed to clarify the proportion, nature and development of the V2 order in Estonian main-clause wh-interrogatives.
The synchronic study showed that the proportion of the V2 order in present-day Estonian main-clause wh-interrogatives is approximately 22%. The V2 order is thus considerably less frequent in wh-interrogatives than in declaratives, but it is subject to similar prosodic exceptions in both. The V2 order is nevertheless more frequent in main-clause wh-interrogatives than in embedded wh-interrogatives and relative clauses, giving evidence of a Germanic-like asymmetry between main and embedded clauses.
The results of the diachronic study suggest that the V2 order has never been borrowed as the predominant order of Estonian main-clause wh-interrogatives. To explain why the V2 feature was borrowed to a different extent into declaratives and wh-interrogatives, we hypothesise that their word order had already diverged before the V2 order was borrowed. According to the hypothesis, wh-interrogatives had retained the historical verb-final order, which remained unaffected by the V2 order, while declaratives had already lost the verb-final order.
Heete Sahkai (b. 1972), PhD, Institute of the Estonian Language, Senior Researcher (Roosikrantsi 6, 10119 Tallinn), heete.sahkai@eki.ee
Anne Tamm (b. 1968), PhD habil., Károli Gáspár University of the Reformed Church in Hungary, Associate Professor (Reviczky u. 4, 1088 Budapest), tamm.anne@kre.hu
Anders Holmberg (b. 1951), PhD, Newcastle University, School of English Literature, Language, and Linguistics, Emeritus Professor (Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU), anders.holmberg@newcastle.ac.uk
Keywords: Estonian poetry, Artur Alliksaar, rhyme, alliteration, sound and meaning
From the semiotic perspective, one can tentatively distinguish between two kinds of art – the first is semantically oriented and is involved in creating meaningful messages within the given art form, using ready-made means, while the second, syntactically oriented, aims at generating new possibilities within literary arts. Artur Alliksaar (1923–1966) represents both tendencies: he has created outstanding syllabic-accentual poems and prescribed poetic forms, especially sonnets, but in addition, he has enriched the Estonian poetic language with entirely new possibilities of sound instrumentation, which is particularly evident in his free-verse works.
The article has two objectives. Firstly, it presents one possible classification of Estonian sound instrumentation, considering both the structure and placement of relevant techniques within the text. This model is illustrated with examples from Artur Alliksaar’s poems, in which sound plays a structurally significant role. The paper examines the techniques used by Alliksaar, as well as their function. Secondly, case studies are conducted on the basis of archival materials, analyzing the draft versions of the poems to see how the author worked on and shaped the sound structure. The article looks into the corrections made by the author in the manuscripts and the possible motivation behind these changes.
The analysis reveals a clear regularity. Although his heavily sound-instrumented free-verse and accentual-syllabic poetry has often been regarded primarily as a play based on free associations within the language, lacking semantic structure and coherence, the study of drafts shows that Artur Alliksaar has consistently worked on multiple levels of the poem, taking into consideration not only the sound but also the semantic and rhythmic aspects. In addition to numerous repetitions at different levels, he regularly developed contrasts in both meaning and sound, creating a multi-layered play between sameness and difference.
Rebekka Lotman (b. 1978), PhD, University of Tartu, Institute of Cultural Research, Associate Professor of World Literature (Ülikooli 16, 51003 Tartu), rebekka.lotman@ut.ee
Maria-Kristiina Lotman (b. 1974), PhD, University of Tartu, Associate Professor of Classical Philology (Lossi 3, 51003 Tartu), maria.lotman@ut.ee
Mihhail Lotman (b. 1952), PhD, University of Tartu, Visiting Professor of Semiotics (Jakobi 2, 51005 Tartu), mihhail.lotman@ut.ee
Keywords: Yelena Skulskaya, Andrei Ivanov, identity
Contemporary methodologies increasingly tend towards interdisciplinarity. In the social sciences, mass culture and literature are gaining attention as new sources of knowledge. Looking at literature through the lens of the new methodological frameworks allows for a more comprehensive study of identities and their evolution. This article applies a new methodology of studying the national identity, developed by Ted Hopf and Bentley Allan in the framework of the project Making Identity Count: Building a National Identity Database, which makes it possible to examine the emergence and persistence of the concept of “a Russian from Russia” as “the Other” in the identity discourse of the Russian-speaking population in Estonia after the restoration of Estonian independence. The first part of this article focuses on identifying the initial stages of the formation of this idea in Estonian Russian-language magazines that covered literature and social issues – Tallinn and Raduga. The second part analyzes the works of the two most popular and well-known Russian-speaking authors – Yelena Skulskaya and Andrei Ivanov. The analysis in complemented by interviews with the writers and references to the works of other Russian-speaking authors.
Elena Pavlova (b. 1975), PhD, University of Tartu, Faculty of Social Sciences, Johan Skytte Institute of Political Studies, Research Fellow (Lossi 36, 51003 Tartu), elena.pavlova@ut.ee
Keywords: nationalism, transnational feminist modernism, Estonian literature, women’s writing, comparative literature
This article reads Estonian writer Leida Kibuvits’s (1907–1976) novel “An Evening Ride” (Rahusõit, 1933) in dialogue with Virginia Woolf’s book-length feminist essay “Three Guineas” (1938) in order to explore how these two writers critique violent and patriarchal nationalism. In its place they imagine, through their affective aesthetics, a peaceful and feminist relationship to the land. The article sees this imaginary meeting as something that Saidiya Hartman would term critical fabulation, and it situates Kibuvits’s and Woolf’s dialogue in the critical framework of transnational feminist modernist studies. By doing so, the article demonstrates that although these writers never met and may never have heard of one another, a comparative approach to their work fills in certain archival silences, also providing a nuanced understanding of how questions relating to women’s role in nation states were addressed similarly by writers across national borders during the first decades of the 20th century.
Eret Talviste (b. 1991), PhD, University of Tartu, College of Foreign Languages and Cultures, Researcher of Contemporary English Literature (Lossi 3, 51003 Tartu), eret.talviste@ut.ee
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Veski, Liisi 2023. Towards stronger national unity: statist ideas in Estonian nationalism during the “Era of Silence” (1934–1940). – Journal of Baltic Studies, lk 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1080/01629778.2023.2190991
Walkowitz, Rebecca L. 2016. Planetary modernisms: provocations on modernity across time. – Interventions: International Journal of Postcolonial Studies, kd 18, nr 5, lk 748–750. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369801X.2016.1173961
Woolf, Virginia 1992. A Room of One’s Own and Three Guineas. Toimetanud ja eessõna kirjutanud Morag Shiach. (Oxford World’s Classics.) Oxford: Oxford University Press.
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Keywords: affect, modernist literature, gender, sexuality, Djuna Barnes, Reed Morn
This article focuses on American writer Djuna Barnes’s novel “Nightwood” (1936) and Estonian writer Reed Morn’s novel “The Talented Parasite” (Andekas parasiit, 1927). Specifically, the article analyses how the two novels represent bodies, affects and materiality, relying on the notion of affective modernism (Taylor 2012). English-language modernist texts have been frequently portrayed as aiming for impersonality and the rejection of emotions and sentiment. Authors like Julie Taylor have challenged this assumption, demonstrating the presence of emotions, drives and sensations in modernist texts. New research on modernism has shown modernist texts both portraying and theorizing bodies (Watts et al. 2019), discussing the relationship between the human and the non-human (Ryan 2015) as well as the Anthropocene (Adkins 2022). This article focuses on affects and senses, in particular the way affects move between bodies, being simultaneously creative and disruptive (Taylor 2012: 1). Both authors analyzed here employ affective ambivalence (Taylor 2012: 2). The article uses Tim Clarke’s (2021) concept of morbid vitalism to analyse how the two novels engage with a central problem of modernity: how to live in the context of despair. This question is viewed from a gendered perspective. The article builds on Taylor’s and Clarke’s analysis of Barnes, enriching their interpretations with insights from other scholars to bring the notion of affective modernism into the study of Estonian literature.
The analysis shows that Barnes’s novel provides an excellent example of morbid vitalism, showing recognizable affective tensions between life and death, felt especially keenly in the social margins where gender trouble does not permit characters to identify with normative social fantasies. Marginality becomes a privilege that permits the characters to see the contradictions in ideologies promising coherent subjecthood and to create modes of being that are oriented towards death while remaining open to the presence of others. The morbidity of Morn’s novel does not come to a similar understanding of affects and embodiment or embrace the vital potential of morbidity. “Nightwood” challenges the binary gender system, while “The Talented Parasite” fails to break out of the culturally prescribed internalized misogyny.
However, both novels test the boundaries of affective modernism. Women writers faced the especially difficult task of finding ways of writing about bodies and emotions without being criticized for dated sentimentality. Both texts provide new modes of affective writing, in which the body is present in the text, but not subjected to stereotypical emotional regimes. Barnes is bolder in her project. Morn, despite the pessimism of her final conclusion, addresses the same range of questions about representing the affects created by living outside of social expectation. Barnes does not grant a happy ending to her freak dandies, but affords them considerable vitality. Morn’s conclusion is pessimistic: the marginal can escape only into death. Both novels pose the question of how to live with despair and both conclude that the only answer can be found in affective ambivalence.
Raili Marling (b. 1973), PhD, University of Tartu, Professor of English Studies (Lossi 3, 51003 Tartu), raili.marling@ut.ee
References
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Oras, Ants 1939. Naiskirjanikest mujal ja meil. – Looming, nr 6, lk 659–663; nr 7, lk 735–741.
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Watts, Kara; Hall, Molly Volanth; Hackett, Robin (toim) 2019. Affective Materialities: Reorienting the Body in Modernist Literature. Gainesville: University Press of Florida. https://doi.org/10.5744/florida/9780813056289.001.0001
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Keywords: translation history, translator studies, multipositionality, gender
The perspective of multipositionality as a means of taking a holistic approach to a person’s multiple lives, i.e. to their different professional fields of activity, has been used to a great effect in translation (including translator) studies. This article explores the feasibility of adapting this concept to the Estonian literary context by looking at the case of Marta Sillaots (1887–1969), known to the wider public mostly as a translator and critic. Less known is her work as a teacher, journalist, and an author of not just children’s stories, but of adult prose, too.
It was primarily the archival sources which demonstrated that Sillaots’ literary and non-literary activities at the start of her career, in the first decades of the 20th century, took several interrelated forms with transferred interests and shifting authority from one field of activity to another. An exploration of Sillaots’ multiple lives unveils a young woman’s professional literary aspirations in their complex, intertwined nature, and reveals her means of survival within the restrictions, conventions and limitations of the largely patriarchal early 20th century Estonian literary landscape.
Külliki Steinberg (b. 1970), MA, University of Tartu, Doctoral Student in Translation History and Translator Studies at the Institute of Foreign Languages and Cultures (Lossi 3, 51003 Tartu), kulliki.steinberg@ut.ee
References
Arhiiviallikad
Eesti Kirjandusmuuseumi (EKM) Eesti Kultuurilooline Arhiiv (EKLA)
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Kirjandus
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Lendur I-a [Marta Sillaots] 1915c. Kõiksugu ilma asjust, peaasjalikult Tartu asjust. – Tallinna Kaja 31. X, nr 43, lk 686–687.
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Lendur I-a [Marta Sillaots] 1915e. Lendur Tallinnas. – Tallinna Kaja 28. XI, nr 47, lk 752.
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Keyword: New Woman, literary decadence, melancholy, creativity, desire
This article analyzes Alma Ostra’s (1886–1960) literary debut, the novella “Aino” (1923), which carries an air of decadence combined with naturalistic elements. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, during the fin de siècle period, decadent aesthetics was a province mostly occupied by men. Several gender-sensitive cultural researchers have shown that the attitudes (such as elitism, individualism, colonialism) and imagery contained in these texts are misogynistic by nature. Building on this, feminist scholars have asked how the forms of decadent aesthetics employed by male authors of the time are reshaped in the texts by women authors, and whether and in which ways these transformations can be seen as feminist practice. Proceeding from these questions, this article explores how Ostra’s work reutilizes three interrelated tropes commonly found in decadent aesthetics: ambivalent melancholy, sexual desire, and creativity. The study reveals how the chosen affective states, characters, and ideas of decadence are employed in “Aino” to critique manifestations of patriarchy, such as double standards, rigid gender roles, and rape culture, whereas such criticism appears more laboured in texts by Ostra’s male colleagues, for example Tuglas and Aavik, with whom “Aino” engages in dialogue.
The decadent, ambivalent mode of expression is a dominant note in “Aino,” allowing, on the one hand, for the portrayal of disappointments associated with womanhood, and on the other hand, for expressions of enthusiasm, thereby representing aspects of the female experience in early 20th-century literature in a nuanced way. The central affect of melancholy depicted in the text triggers depression and creativity, disdain for love, as well as pleasurable, sexually charged scenes – elements that have largely been overlooked in other works of the period. The infusion of the naturalist trope of race – the deep psyche and affective nature of the human groups active in a particular region (nationality) – into Aino’s self-perception adds suggestiveness to the negative emotions caused by gender-based constraints. Ostra’s work portrays the double oppression experienced by Estonian female students of the time, both in rural and (academic) urban environments. The perception of women’s entrapment is balanced by descriptions of new forms of female subjectivity – such as the intensely imaginative female thinker-artist – pointing towards a more harmonious future, gender-wise, and a hopeful outlook for women. As such, “Aino” engages in a critical conversation with both the anti-feminist lines of thought that perpetuate women’s lack of creative capacity and independence, and the feminist theories of the first half of the 20th century, which emphasized women’s autonomy as well as the importance of their sexual fulfilment.
Merlin Kirikal (b. 1986), PhD, Estonian Academy of Sciences, Under and Tuglas Literature Centre, Senior Researcher (Kohtu 6, 10130 Tallinn), merlinkirikal@gmail.com
References
ARHIIVIALLIKAD
Eesti Kirjandusmuuseumi (EKM) Eesti Kultuurilooline Arhiiv (EKLA)
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